英语辩论《合作》的英文材料

Cooperation vs.competition
While cooperation is the antithesis of competition,the need or desire to compete with others is a common impetus that motivates individuals to organize into a group and cooperate with each other in order to form a stronger competitive force.
Coöperation in many areas such as farming and housing may be in the form of a cooperative or,alternately,in the form of a conventional business.
Many people resort to this because,they may cooperate by trading with each other or by altruistic sharing.
Certain forms of cooperation are illegal in some jurisdictions because they alter the nature of access by others to economic or other resources.Thus,cooperation in the form of cartels or price-fixing may be illegal.
A few mechanisms have been suggested for the appearance of cooperation between humans or in natural system
The *er's Dilemma
Even if all members of a group would benefit if all cooperate,individual self-interest may not favor cooperation.The *er's dilemma codifies this problem and has been the subject of much research,both theoretical and experimental.Results from experimental economics show that humans often act more cooperatively than strict self-interest would seem to dictate.
One reason for this may be that if the *er's dilemma situation is repeated (the iterated *er's dilemma),it allows non-cooperation to be punished more,and cooperation to be rewarded more,than the single-shot version of the problem would suggest.It has been suggested that this is one reason for the evolution of complex emotional and social behavior in higher animals.
Another reason might be that humans are by nature socially co-operative beings,who,at least as infants,and usually thereafter,cannot survive without co-operating - although with maturation they gain much more choice about the kinds of co-operation they wish to have.
There are four main conditions that tend to be necessary for cooperative behaviour to develop between two individuals:
An overlap in desires
A chance of future encounters with the same individual
Memory of past encounters with that individual
A value associated with future outcomes
Teamwork is the concept of people working together cooperatively,as in a sports team.
Projects require that people work together,so teamwork has become an important concept in organizations.Effective teams are an intermediary goal towards getting good,sustainable results.Industry has seen increasing efforts through training and cross-training to help people to work together more effectively and to accomplish shared goals,whether colleagues are present or absent.
鈥淭he old structures are being reformed.As organizations seek to become more flexible in the face of rapid environmental change and more responsive to the needs of customers,they are experimenting with new,team-based structures鈥 (Jackson & Ruderman,1996).
A 2003 national representative survey,HOW-FAIR [1],revealed that Americans think that 'being a team player' was the most important factor in getting ahead in the workplace.This was ranked higher than several factors,including 'merit and performance','leadership skills','intelligence','making money for the organization' and 'long hours'.
Aside from any required technical proficiency,a wide variety of social skills are desirable for successful teamwork,including:
Listening - it is important to listen to other people's ideas.When people are allowed to freely express their ideas,these initial ideas will produce other ideas.
Questioning - it is important to ask questions,interact,and discuss the objectives of the team.
Persuading - individuals are encouraged to exchange,defend,and then to ultimately rethink their ideas.
Respecting - it is important to treat others with respect and to support their ideas.
Helping - it is crucial to help one's coworkers,which is the general theme of teamwork.
Sharing - it is important to share with the team to create an environment of teamwork.
Participating - all members of the team are encouraged to participate in the team.
Communication - For a team to work effectively it is essential team members acquire communication skills and use effective communication channels between one another e.g.using email,viral communcation,group meetings and so on.This will enable team members of the group to work together and achieve the teams purpose and goals.
The forming-storming-norming-performing model takes the team through four stages of team development and maps quite well on to many project management life cycle models,such as initiation - definition - planning - realisation.
As teams grow larger,the skills and methods that people require grow as more ideas are expressed freely.Managers must use these to create or maintain a spirit of teamwork change.The intimacy of a small group is lost,and the opportunity for misinformation and disruptive rumors grows.Managers find that communication methods that once worked well are impractical with so many people to lead.Specifically,leaders might encounter difficulties based on Daglow's Law of Team Dynamics:"Small teams are informed.Big teams infer."